In devising ways of communicating with the right hemisphere ,RW Sperry won the 1981 Nobel Prize for medicine , by showing the right hemisphere is " indeed a conscious system in its own right, perceiving, thinking, remembering & reasoning, " —Roger Wolcott Sperry CALTEC
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HISTORY
Elizabeth IElizabeth I (1533-1603) was queen of England from 1558 until her death in 1603. Her reign is often called the Golden Age or the Elizabethan Age because it was a time of great achievement in England. Elizabeth made the Church of England, a Protestant denomination, the country's main church. At the same time, she long avoided war with Europe's leading Roman Catholic nations. The English navy defeated a powerful Spanish fleet, and English merchants and sailors challenged the Spaniards with greater confidence throughout the world. The economy prospered, while Elizabeth's court became a centre for poets, musicians, and scholars. Early years. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich, an estate near London. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth's mother was executed for treason in 1536. Henry died in 1547 and was succeeded by Elizabeth's half brother, Edward VI. Like Elizabeth, Edward had been raised a Protestant When he died in 1553, Elizabeth's half sister, Mary Tudor, became queen. Mary had been raised as a Catholic by her mother, Catherine of Aragon, and was determined to make Catholicism the state religion of England. She became known as "Bloody Mary" for her persecution of Protestants. . Queen Mary distrusted Elizabeth, who was next in line to the throne. Elizabeth cautiously avoided any involvement in politics during Mary's rule. But Elizabeth came under suspicion in 1554, following an uprising known as Wyatt's Rebellion. The rebels tried to overthrow Mary, but failed. Elizabeth was imprisoned for a time though no evidence linking her to the plot was found. Mary died in 1558, and Elizabeth became queen. Mary, Queen of Scots. Elizabeth's cousin, Mary Stuart, was forced to abdicate her throne as queen of Scotland in 1567. She later fled to England, where her presence caused a great deal of uneasiness. Mary was a Catholic and heir to the English throne. Many English people feared she would try to replace Elizabeth. Several plots against Elizabeth involving Catholic nobility proved unsuccessful. In 1584, the English aristocracy formed an association to protect their queen and vowed to prevent a Catholic succession in England. In 1586, Mary was implicated in another plot against Elizabeth. Public reaction against Mary was strong. Reluctantly, Elizabeth finally agreed to Mary's execution in 1587. The Spanish Armada. In 1586, Elizabeth sent an army to help Protestants in the Dutch Netherlands fight Spanish rule. She also encouraged English ships to raid Spanish fleets. Sir Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh, and other "sea dogs" looted several Spanish ships. In 1587, Drake destroyed 30 Spanish ships in port at Cadiz. These events and the execution of Mary Stuart led King Philip II of Spain to approve an invasion of England. He assembled an armada and sent it to England in 1588. But the smaller and swifter English vessels routed the Spanish fleet. Fierce storms then wrecked many of the fleeing Spanish ships off the coasts of Ireland and Scotland. Spain's power was seriously damaged, but the war went on for 16 years. Despite the armada's defeat, many English people still feared a Spanish invasion. But Elizabeth eased their fears in August of 1588 with a speech to soldiers assembled at Tilbury. English literature, in particular, thrived during this period. Francis Bacon composed his Essays; Christopher Marlowe wrote and staged The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus; Edmund Spenser wrote his epic poem, The Faerie Queene; and William Shakespeare wrote some of the world's greatest poetry and drama
Joseph StalinStalin, Joseph (1879-1953), was dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) from 1929 until 1953. He rose from bitter poverty to become ruler of a country that covers about a sixth of the world's land area. Stalin ruled by terror during most of his years as dictator. He allowed no one to oppose his decisions. Stalin executed or jailed most of those who had helped him rise to power because he feared they might threaten his rule. Stalin also was responsible for the deaths of millions of Soviet peasants who opposed his programme of collective agriculture (government control of farms). Under Stalin, the Soviet Union operated a worldwide network of Communist parties. By the time he died, Communism had spread to 11 other countries. The Soviet people had cause to hate Stalin, and much of the world feared him. But he changed the Soviet Union from an undeveloped country into one of the world's great industrial and military powers. During World War II (1939-1945), the Soviet Union was an ally of the United States and Great Britain against Germany. However, Stalin sharply opposed and, on occasion, betrayed his allies even before World War II was over. The last years of Stalin's rule were marked by the Cold War in which many non-Communist nations banded together to halt the spread of Communism. Stalin had little personal charm, and could be brutal to even his closest friends. He seemed unable to feel pity. He could not take criticism, and he never forgave an opponent. Few dictators have demanded such terrible sacrifices from their own people. After Stalin became dictator, he had Soviet histories rewritten to make his role in past events appear far greater than it really was. In 1938, he helped write an official history of the Communist Party. Stalin had not played a leading part in the revolution of November 1917 (October by the old Russian calendar), which brought Communism to Russia. Lenin led this revolution, which is known as the October Revolution, and set up the world's first Communist government. But in his history, Stalin pictured himself as Lenin's chief assistant in the revolution. Stalin died in 1953. He was honored by having his body placed beside that of Lenin in a huge tomb in Red Square in Moscow. In 1956, Nikita S. Khrushchev strongly criticized Stalin for his terrible crimes against loyal Communists. Later, in 1961, the government renamed many cities, towns, and factories that had been named after Stalin. Stalin's body was taken from the tomb and buried in a simple grave nearby.
Nelson
MachiavelliMachiavelli viewed the state as an organism with its ruler as the head and its people as the body. He maintained that a healthy state is unified, orderly, and in balance, and that its people have happiness, honor, strength, and security. But an unhealthy state is disorderly and unbalanced, and may require strong measures to restore it to normal. Machiavelli called for a leader to use any means necessary to preserve the state, resorting to cruelty, deception, and force if nothing else worked. As a result, many people thought he supported the use of cruelty and deceit in politics. The word Machiavellian came to mean cunning and unscrupulous. Machiavelli explained most of his ideas in The Prince, his best-known book, which was written in 1513 and published in 1532. This book describes the methods by which a strong ruler might gain power and keep their country strong. Machiavelli's other works include Discourses upon the First Ten Books of Livy (1517 or 1518) and The Art of War (1520 or 1521). He also wrote plays and poems. Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy. In 1498, he was appointed secretary of the second highest governing body in the Florentine republic. His duties consisted mainly of conducting diplomatic missions. He also organized a militia for the republic. In 1512, the republic collapsed. The Medici family, which had ruled Florence earlier, was then restored to power. Machiavelli was arrested, tortured, and imprisoned on suspicion of plotting against Medici rule, but he was released after less than a year.
RobespeirreRobespierreRobespierre (1758-1794) was the most famous and controversial leader of the French Revolution (1789-1799). In the name of democracy, he helped bring about the Reign of Terror, a period in which thousands of suspected opponents of the revolution were executed. In time, Robespierre met the same fate. Maximilien Robespierre was born in Arras, France. He studied at the College of Louis-le-Grand in Paris and later became a successful lawyer. Robespierre was greatly influenced by the philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, who argued that the right to govern came from the people. In 1789, Robespierre was elected to the Estates-General, an assembly that the king called to deal with a financial crisis in France. There, he distinguished himself as a spokesman for the principle of equality and the rights of the common people. He wanted voting rights extended to all the people, including Protestants, Jews, and free blacks of the French colonies. Robespierre was a leader of the Jacobin Club of Paris, a radical political group. By 1792, most Jacobins wanted a democratic republic instead of a constitutional monarchy. Revolutionary leader. In August 1792, the people of Paris took custody of King Louis XVI and his family and imprisoned them. Soon afterward, Robespierre was elected to the National Convention, a national assembly established to take over the government of France. The Convention declared France a republic, placed Louis XVI on trial, and sentenced him to death as a traitor. Robespierre then led an attack in the Convention against moderate deputies known as the Girondists. He and his followers expelled the Girondists in June 1793 and took control of the Convention. In July 1793, Robespierre was elected to the Committee of Public Safety, the Convention's governing body. He stressed the republic's need for a single centre of opinion and viewed disagreement with the committee's policies as treachery. His speeches justified the Reign of Terror to defend and "purify" the revolution. By the end of July 1794, about 17,000 rebels and suspected "enemies of the republic" had been executed, including Robespierre's one-time friend and fellow deputy, Georges Danton. His death and role. As a result of his policies, many members of the Convention became Robespierre's enemies. They feared for their lives and organized a plot against him. On July 26, 1794, Robespierre seemed to call for an end to the use of terror, but he also threatened unnamed deputies. The next day, a group of his opponents persuaded the Convention to order his arrest. The Convention sentenced him to die on the guillotine. He was executed on July 28, 1794. Today, historians still argue over Robespierre's role. Some scholars regard him as cold-blooded, fanatical, and self-righteous. Others view him as "The Incorruptible," a totally dedicated patriot and democrat.
LincolnAbe Lincoln - was born on Feb. 12, 1809Lincoln, Abraham (1809-1865), was president of the United States from 1861 to 1865. He led the United States during the American Civil War, which was the greatest crisis in U.S. history. He helped preserve the American Union and helped end slavery in America. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and his many other speeches and writings are classic statements of democratic beliefs and goals. His nobility of character won him worldwide appeal. Many have regarded Lincoln as the greatest person in U.S. history. Lincoln was the first Republican to become president. He was also the first president to be assassinated. In 1834, a lawyer called John Stuart urged Lincoln to study law. Lincoln borrowed law books from Stuart and studied them. He sometimes walked the 32 kilometres from New Salem to Stuart's office for books. In 1836, Lincoln embarked on a highly successful career as a lawyer based in the Illinois state capital of Springfield. He eventually founded his own firm in 1846. Abraham Lincoln married Mary Todd in 1842. The Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise. It provided that the settlers of new territories should decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery. Lincoln considered that the Kansas-Nebraska Act gave new life to slavery, and it outraged him. Lincoln as president. On Dec. 20, 1860, South Carolina withdrew from the Union of American States by passing an Ordinance of Secession. By the time Lincoln took up the presidency, six other Southern States had withdrawn from the Union. Four more states followed later. The seceded states organized themselves into the Confederate States of America. The Civil War. In April 1861, Confederate troops captured the Union garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. This signalled the start of the American Civil War. Lincoln met the crisis with energetic action. He called on the militia, proclaimed a blockade of Southern parts, and expanded the army. He suspended the writ of habeas corpus (a basic protection against unjust detention by authorities). He also ordered the spending of government funds without waiting for approval by the Congress. As commander in chief of the Union's army, Lincoln had to select an officer capable of organizing untrained volunteers and leading them to victory. His first four choices proved costly failures, and Union forces suffered several defeats during the first year of the war. Lincoln eventually found a general who could win battles in Ulysses S. Grant. The Gettysburg Address. Union armies won two great victories in 1863, at the battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and Vicksburg, Mississippi. On Nov. 19, 1863, ceremonies were held to dedicate a cemetery on the Gettysburg battlefield. The principal speaker was Edward Everett, one of the greatest orators of his day. He spoke for two hours. Lincoln was asked to say a few words, and spoke for about two minutes. Lincoln's short Gettysburg Address, with its ringing declaration that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth," is probably Lincoln's most famous speech. In March 1864, Lincoln put General Grant in command of all the Union armies. The Union army in the east, the Army of the Potomac, started to march toward Richmond two months later. At the same time, General William Sherman began his famous march from Tennessee through Confederate Georgia to the sea. The end of the war was clearly in sight when Lincoln took the oath of office a second time, on March 4, 1865. Grant was besieging Confederate General Robert E. Lee's weary troops at Petersburgh, Virginia. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. Under authority from Lincoln, Grant extended generous terms to Lee and his army. A great wave of joy swept the North when the fighting ended. Assassination. On the evening of April 14, 1865, Lincoln attended a performance of the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theater in Washington. A few minutes after 10 o'clock, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor of the day and a Southern sympathizer, shot the president in the head from the rear of the presidential box. In making his escape Booth was heard to cry "Sic semper tyrannis" (Thus always to tyrants), the motto of Virginia.
Churchill - Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill was born on Nov. 30, 1874Churchill, Sir Winston (1874-1965), became one of the greatest statesmen in world history. Churchill reached the height of his fame as the heroic prime minister of Great Britain during World War II (1939-1945). He offered his people only "blood, toil, tears, and sweat" as they struggled to keep their freedom. Churchill was also a noted speaker, author, painter, soldier, and war reporter. Early in World War II, Great Britain stood alone against Nazi Germany. The British people refused to give in despite the tremendous odds against them. Churchill's personal courage and his faith in victory inspired the British to "their finest hour." The mere sight of this stocky, determined man--a cigar in his mouth and two fingers raised high in a "V for victory" salute--cheered the people. Churchill seemed to be John Bull, the symbol of the British people, come to life. Churchill not only made history, he also wrote it. As a historian, war reporter, and biographer, he showed a matchless command of the English language. In 1953, he won the Nobel Prize for literature. Yet as a schoolboy, he had been the worst student in his class. Churchill spoke as he wrote--clearly, vividly, majestically. Yet he had stuttered as a boy. Churchill joined the armed forces in 1895 as an army lieutenant under Queen Victoria. He ended his career in 1964 as a member of the House of Commons under Queen Elizabeth II, the great-great-granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Few men ever served their country so long or so well. Young Winston, a chunky lad with a mop of red hair, had an unhappy boyhood. He talked with a stutter and lisp, and did poorly in his schoolwork. His stubbornness and high spirits annoyed everyone. In addition, his parents had little time for him. When Winston was 6 years old, his brother, John, was born. The difference in their ages prevented any real companionship. At the age of 12, Winston entered Harrow School, a leading British independent school. Throughout his school career, Winston was bottom of his class. At Harrow, however, his love of the English language began to grow. There, he said later, he "got into my bones the essential structure of the ordinary English sentence ..." In 1893, at the age of 18, Winston entered the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. He had failed the entrance examinations twice before passing them. But he soon led his class in tactics and fortifications, the most important subjects. He graduated eighth in a class of 150. In 1895, Churchill was appointed a second lieutenant in the 4th Hussars, a proud cavalry regiment. Between wars During the years between World Wars I and II, Churchill spent much of his spare time painting and writing. He did not begin painting until in his 40's, and surprised critics with his talent. He liked to use bold, brilliant colours. Many of Churchill's paintings have hung in the Royal Academy of Arts, London. Painting provided relaxation and pleasure, but Churchill considered writing his chief occupation after politics. In his four-volume World Crisis (1923-1929), he brilliantly recorded the history of World War I. In Marlborough, His Life and Times (1933-1938), he wrote a monumental six-volume study of his ancestor. The Battle of Britain. After Belgium and France surrendered to Germany, Britain stood alone. A German invasion seemed certain. In a speech to the House of Commons on the day after France asked Germany for an armistice, Churchill declared: "Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will say, 'This was their finest hour. ' " The Germans had to defeat the Royal Air Force (RAF) before they could invade across the English Channel. In July, the German Luftwaffe (air force) began to bomb British shipping and ports. In September, the Luftwaffe began nightly raids on London. The RAF, though outnumbered, fought bravely and finally defeated the Luftwaffe. Churchill expressed the nation's gratitude to its airmen: "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few." While the battle raged, Churchill turned up everywhere. He defied air-raid alarms and went into the streets as the bombs fell. He toured RAF headquarters, inspected coastal defences, and visited victims of the air raids. Everywhere he went he held up two fingers in a "V for victory" salute. To the people of all the Allied nations, this simple gesture became an inspiring symbol of faith in eventual victory.
KennedyKennedy, John Fitzgerald (1917-1963), was president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. He was the youngest man ever elected president and the youngest to die in office. He was shot and killed on Nov. 22, 1963, after two years and 10 months as chief executive. Early life. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.A. His father, Joseph P. Kennedy, was a self-made millionaire. John F. Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940. Several months before the United States entered World War II in 1941, Kennedy enlisted in the U.S. Navy. Late in 1942, he was assigned to a patrol torpedo (PT) boat squadron and later learned to command one of the small craft. During his naval service in the South Pacific, Kennedy received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal. Kennedy's administration (1961-1963). The New Frontier was the name Kennedy gave to his legislative programme. In April 1961, the legislators approved aid to economically depressed areas. In September 1962, Congress passed the President's Trade Expansion Act. The act gave the president wide powers to cut tariffs so the United States could trade freely with the European Common Market. One of the most successful of Kennedy's programmes was the U.S. Peace Corps. It was launched by executive order in March 1961, and was later authorized by Congress. The corps sent thousands of Americans abroad to help developing nations raise their standards of living. Civil rights. Demands for equal rights for blacks became the major domestic issue during the Kennedy administration. From 1961 to 1963, racial protests and demonstrations took place in all parts of the United States. To meet the growing demands of blacks, Kennedy asked Congress to pass legislation requiring hotels, motels, and restaurants to admit customers regardless of race. The president also asked Congress to grant the attorney general authority to begin court suits to desegregate schools on behalf of private citizens. Cuba. On April 17, 1961, Cuban rebels, with U.S. help, invaded their homeland to overthrow Fidel Castro, the Communist-supported dictator. The assault ended in disaster. Kennedy accepted blame for this ill-fated Bay of Pigs Invasion. Another Cuban crisis erupted in October 1962, when the United States learned that the Soviet Union had installed missiles in Cuba capable of striking U.S. cities. Kennedy ordered the U.S. Navy to quarantine (blockade) Cuba. Navy ships were ordered to turn back ships delivering Soviet missiles to Cuba. For a week, war seemed likely. Then, Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev ordered all Soviet offensive missiles removed. The president then lifted the quarantine. Berlin. In 1961, the Soviet Union threatened to give Communist East Germany control over the West's air and land supply routes to Berlin. The threat was part of a Soviet effort to end the combined American, British, and French control of West Berlin, begun when World War II ended. The Western nations opposed any threat to the freedom of West Berlin. In June 1961, Kennedy discussed Berlin with Khrushchev at a two-day meeting in Vienna, Austria. Nothing was settled, and the crisis deepened. Both countries increased their military strength. In August, the East Germans built a wall between East and West Berlin to prevent people from fleeing to the West. Kennedy called up about 145,000 members of the U.S. National Guard and reservists to strengthen U.S. military defence. Southeast Asia continued to be a trouble spot. Kennedy sent U.S. military advisers there in 1961 and 1962 when Communist guerrillas threatened South Vietnam and Thailand. Kennedy also sent advisers to Laos. Disarmament. In July 1963, the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom signed a treaty banning the testing of atomic weapons in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water. Testing was permitted underground. The treaty avoided the issue of internal inspections, which had deadlocked previous negotiations. Many countries that had no atomic weapons also signed the treaty. Kennedy's assassination. Kennedy was shot and killed by an assassin on Nov. 22, 1963, as he rode through the streets of Dallas, Texas, in an open car.
FrancoFrancoFranco, Francisco (1892-1975), was dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. He came to power at the end of the Spanish Civil War. During that war, he led the rebel Nationalist Army to victory over the Loyalist (Republican) forces. After the war ended in 1939, Franco held complete control of Spain. His regime was similar to a Fascist dictatorship. He carried out the functions of chief of state, prime minister, commander in chief, and leader of the Falange, the only political party permitted His early life. Franco was born Francisco Franco Bahamonde in El Ferrol del Caudillo, in the province of La Coruna, Spain. His father was a naval officer. Young Franco was trained as an army officer at the Infantry Academy of Toledo. Between 1912 and 1927, he held important command posts in Spanish Morocco. He was made a general at the age of 34. In 1931, Spain became a republic. During the next five years, disputes involving Spanish political groups became increasingly severe. At first, Franco avoided becoming involved in the disputes. But when the moderate conservatives won the election of 1933, Franco became identified with them. In 1934, Franco helped put down a revolt by leftists, who wanted sweeping changes in Spain's way of life. In 1935, he became army chief of staff. The following year, the leftists won the election and sent Franco to a post in the Canary Islands. Military leaders plotted to overthrow the leftist government in 1936. The revolt began in July 1936 and it started a total civil war. The rebel generals named Franco commander in chief and dictator. Franco's forces, called Nationalists, received strong support from Italy and Germany. On April 1, 1939, after 32 months of bitter fighting, the Nationalists gained complete victory. Franco then became dictator without opposition. As dictator, Franco kept Spain officially neutral during World War II. But he sent "volunteers" to help Germany fight the Soviet Union. After the war, the victorious Allies would have little to do with Spain because of Franco's pro-Fascist policies. The Western powers became more friendly toward Franco during the Cold War with the Soviet Union, because he was against Communism. In 1953, Franco signed an agreement with the United States. He permitted the United States to build air and naval bases in Spain in exchange for economic and military aid. This aid helped bring about industrial expansion. Spain's living standard rose dramatically during the 1960's.
Napolean Boneparte - Napoleon was born on Aug. 15, 1769Napoleon I (1769-1821), also known as Napoleon Bonaparte, crowned himself emperor of France. He was the greatest military genius of his time and perhaps the greatest general in history. He created an empire that covered most of western and central Europe. Napoleon was also an excellent administrator. He introduced many useful reforms, including the creation of a strong, efficient central government and the revision and organization of French laws into collections called codes. Many of Napoleon's reforms are evident today in the institutions of France and of areas once under French control. Napoleon was 157 centimetres tall, about average for Frenchmen of his time, though most French generals and statesmen were taller. He earned the nickname le Petit Caporal (the little corporal) in 1796 at the Battle of Lodi, near Milan, Italy. In the battle, General Bonaparte startled his troops by personally aiming the cannon, a risky job usually performed by a corporal. Napoleon was an inspirational and dramatic leader. He could also be cynical and demanding, though this side of his character was usually hidden from the public. In addition, Napoleon had great energy and ambition. He personally directed complex military manoeuvres and at the same time controlled France's press, police system, foreign policy, and domestic affairs. He chose capable subordinates and rewarded them generously with medals, wealth, military rank, and titles of nobility. Napoleon's ambition ultimately led him to overextend his power. His downfall also resulted in part from feelings of nationalism in some of the areas invaded by French troops and from economic hardship brought on by Napoleon's attempts to exclude British goods from continental Europe. Other factors that contributed to his downfall included bitter reaction to the taxes and conscription (the draft) that he imposed throughout his empire, and the opposition to Napoleon of many of Europe's royal rulers. In 1779, at the age of 9, Napoleon entered a French military school at Brienne-le-Chateau, a town in France near Troyes. Napoleon was an average student in most subjects, but he excelled in mathematics. In 1784, he was selected for the elite military academy Ecole Militaire in Paris, from which he graduated a year later. The "whiff of grapeshot." In 1795, Napoleon was in Paris when angry mobs there tried to attack the ruling National Convention at the royal palace called the Tuileries. The mobs had been encouraged by royalists who hoped to destroy the convention before it could install a new moderate government. The convention was protected by troops under Vicomte Paul de Barras. Barras had seen Napoleon in action at Toulon and now sent for him. Napoleon defended the palace with point-blank cannon fire. This cannon fire, which became known as the "whiff of grapeshot," killed or wounded hundreds of people and quickly cleared the streets. Napoleon was hailed as a hero and promoted to major general. In 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais, a beautiful woman of French descent from Martinique in the West Indies. Napoleon left Paris to take command of a French army on the Italian-French border--an underfed, ill-equipped force of about 38,000 men. The Directory hoped that he could tie up Austrian forces in Italy while larger French armies won the war by marching through Germany and attacking Vienna, Austria's capital. Instead, Napoleon won the war. In less than a year, he defeated four armies, each larger than his own. He won a final victory by marching over the Alps and threatening Vienna in early 1797. In October, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campoformio, which enlarged France's territory. Napoleon returned to Paris, where once again he was hailed as a hero. Military strategy. Napoleon had by now developed a highly successful military strategy that was to form the basis of his future campaigns. He would start a battle while holding back as large a reserve as possible. He would then seek the weakest point in the enemy's lines and throw all his strength against that point at the decisive moment. Napoleon had an extraordinary ability to recognize the best time to attack. Egypt invaded. When Napoleon returned to Paris after defeating Austria, he already had political ambitions.Napoleon reached Egypt in July. There, he defeated the Mamelukes, Egypt's military rulers, in the Battle of the Pyramids near Cairo . On August 1, however, the French fleet anchored in Abu Qir Bay was destroyed in the Battle of the Nile by a British fleet commanded by Lord Horatio Nelson. As a result, Napoleon's army was stranded in Egypt. Turkey then formed an alliance with Great Britain and Russia and declared war on France. Napoleon formed key political alliances and seized control of the French government on Nov. 9, 1799, in a bold move known as the Coup d'Etat of Eighteenth Brumaire. The Napoleonic empire The Peninsular War began in 1808 when Spanish and Portuguese forces rebelled against French rule. Soon after the war began, British troops joined the fight against France on the peninsula that consisted of Portugal and Spain. By April 1814, all French forces had been driven from the peninsula. Disaster in Russia. On Dec. 31, 1810, Czar Alexander I of Russia withdrew from the Continental System. Napoleon felt that the czar's withdrawal threatened France, and so he assembled a new army to attack Russia. Many years of war had weakened France, but Napoleon raised about 600,000 men. Napoleon pushed on to Moscow only to find the city nearly empty of people. Soon after the French army entered Moscow, large parts of the city were destroyed by fires that had been set by the retreating Russians. With the bitter Russian winter approaching, Napoleon waited in Moscow for Alexander to offer peace, but no such offer came. In mid-October, Napoleon, unable to supply his troops, began the long retreat from Moscow. His soldiers struggled against snowstorms and freezing temperatures. Soldiers and horses died of starvation and exposure. Russian soldiers called Cossacks killed many of the stragglers. Of the 600,000 men in Napoleon's army, about 500,000 died, deserted, or were captured during the campaign and the retreat from Russia. Exile to Elba. At Fontainebleau on April 11, 1814, Napoleon abdicated (gave up) the imperial throne. The allies called for the return of a king of the Bourbon family and placed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, on the French throne (see LOUIS). Napoleon was exiled from France and made ruler of the tiny island of Elba off the northwest coast of Italy. The Hundred Days and Waterloo. On Elba, Napoleon planned his return to France. In February 1815, he sailed from the island with about 1,100 followers who had shared his exile. He landed at Cannes on March 1 and began marching to Paris, gathering supporters along the way. Troops led by Marshal Michel Ney were dispatched from Paris to arrest Napoleon. But when they saw their old leader, the men gladly joined him and hailed him as their emperor. Louis XVIII fled Paris as Napoleon approached. On March 20, Napoleon entered Paris and was carried on the shoulders of cheering crowds into the Tuileries. Napoleon advanced into Belgium with about 125,000 men, hoping to defeat the separate armies of Britain's Duke of Wellington and the Prussian Marshal Gebhard von Blucher. On June 16, Napoleon defeated Blucher at Ligny, near Fleurus. On June 18, Napoleon attacked Wellington at Waterloo in what has become one of history's most famous battles. The battle featured spectacular charges by thousands of French cavalry. But just as it seemed the British forces would collapse, Blucher's troops arrived to reinforce Wellington. Badly outnumbered, the French army suffered a crushing defeat. Napoleon fled to Paris and abdicated for the second time, on June 22. The period from Napoleon's return to Paris from Elba to his second abdication is known as the Hundred Days. Napoleon tried to escape to the United States, but he failed and surrendered at Rochefort to Frederick Lewis Maitland, the captain of the British battleship Bellerophon. In August, Napoleon was sent to the barren British island of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. On St. Helena, Napoleon spent much of his remaining years dictating to friends his version of the events that occurred during his lifetime. He died of cancer on May 5, 1821, and was buried on the island.
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